Understanding Social Exchange Theory

Understanding Social Exchange Theory Social exchange theory is a model for interpreting society as a series of interactions between people that are based on estimates of rewards and punishments. According to this view, our interactions are determined by the rewards or punishments that we expect to receive from others, which we evaluate using a  cost-benefit analysis  model (whether consciously or subconsciously). Overview Central to the social exchange theory is the idea that an interaction that elicits approval from another person is more likely to be repeated than an interaction that elicits disapproval. We can thus predict whether a particular interaction will be repeated by calculating the degree of reward (approval) or punishment (disapproval) resulting from the interaction. If the reward for an interaction exceeds the punishment, then the interaction is likely to occur or continue. According to this theory, the formula for predicting the behavior of any individual in any situation is: Behavior (profits) Rewards of interaction – costs of interaction. Rewards can come in many forms: social recognition, money, gifts, and even subtle everyday gestures like a smile, nod, or pat on the back. Punishments also come in many forms, from extremes like public humiliation, beating, or execution, to subtle gestures like a raised eyebrow or a frown. While social exchange theory is found in economics and psychology, it was first developed by the sociologist George Homans, who wrote about it in an essay titled Social Behavior as Exchange. Later, sociologists Peter Blau and Richard Emerson further developed the theory. Example A simple example of social exchange theory can be seen in the interaction of asking someone out on a date. If the person says yes, you have gained a reward and are likely to repeat the interaction by asking that person out again, or by asking someone else out. On the other hand, if you ask someone out on a date and they reply, â€Å"No way!† then you have received a punishment that will probably cause you to shy away from repeating this type of interaction with the same person in the future. Basic Assumptions of Social Exchange Theory People who are involved in the interaction are rationally seeking to maximize their profits.Most gratification among humans comes from others.People have access to information about social, economic, and psychological aspects of their interactions that allow them to consider the alternative, more profitable situations relative to their present situation.People are goal oriented in a freely competitive system.The exchange operates within cultural norms.Social credit is preferred over social indebtedness.The more deprived the individual feels in terms of an act, the more the person will assign a value to it.People are rational and calculate the best possible means to compete in rewarding situations. The same is true of punishment avoidance situations. Critiques Many critique this theory for presuming that people always make rational decisions, and point out that this theoretical model fails to capture the power that emotions play in our daily lives and in our interactions with others. This theory also undercuts the power of social structures and forces, which unconsciously shape our perception of the world and our experiences within it, and play a strong role in shaping our interactions with others.

Multiculturalism and its benefits.

Multiculturalism and its benefits. Multiculturalism(Introduction)The word multiculturalism has been touted and expounded on for many years. This is due to extensive immigration as well as to the world becoming a much smaller place because of communication technology, world travel and international trade. It obviously has some importance in our society and its benefits would probably not be quite as appreciated if we could see a time and a place where such a practice was not encouraged.(Body)(1.Trade Investment)Multiculturalism encourages good relations with different nationalities be they local students, foreign students, visiting workers or visiting trade officials. Even immigrants with relatives and friends overseas provide good trade and investment contacts. Better trade relations ensures the exchange of different goods, this is important where vital imports like wheat and electronics is concerned.The influx of overseas investment is necessary in the growth of our local industries and this cannot be done if other nations hear about our poor civic race relations, particularly towards people who had originated from their shores.Australia realized this uncomfortable fact when certain conservative politicians made speeches sanctioning a whiter country with less tolerance for ethnic migrants. Its Asian neighbours responded by sending less students and making less business investments.(2.Science Education)The learning of different technologies from other countries and the import of talented professional foreigners is a practice that the United States, Japan and Singapore have executed with positive impact. In both countries there exist a group of highly skilled expatriate workers, quite a few who have decided to permanently make these countries their home. Also, the employment of foreign professors and the attendance of foreign graduate students raises the level of information exchange and technical knowledge of universities.The learning of different cultures in the area of history, literature, s cience and...